Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Han-dynasty. [84] Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year, however the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings. [201], During times of war, the volunteer army was increased, and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. [267], Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. [13] Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Famous dynasties were: from England: The House of Tudor (1485-1603) and the House of Stuart (1603-1714). [81] Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong (d. 189 AD) and Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades.[82]. [254], From Han literary sources, it is known that wooden-trestle beam bridges, arch bridges, simple suspension bridges, and floating pontoon bridges existed in Han China. [268] The odometer cart, invented during Han, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance traveled. The giving of betrothal gifts, known as bridewealth and dowry, were especially important. Silk Road. By 196 BC, the Han court had replaced all but one of these kings (the exception being in Changsha) with royal Liu family members, since the loyalty of non-relatives to the throne was questioned. [212], The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords. The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation,[6] defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior and vassal partner for several decades, but continued their military raids on the Han borders. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance. It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. The Eastern Han court favored the recruitment of a volunteer army. [194], At the beginning of the Han dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for conscription into the military. [259] These boreholes perhaps reached a depth of 600 m (2000 ft).[260]. Imperial dynasty that ruled China (most of the time from 206 BC to AD 220) and expanded its boundaries and developed its bureaucracy; remembered as one of … [210], The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the very social class the government attempted to suppress through heavy commercial and property taxes. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula, though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD. [167], The Chancellor, whose title was changed to 'Minister over the Masses' in 8 BC, was chiefly responsible for drafting the government budget. Emperor Guangwu (Liu Xiu; 25 ~ 57 AD) 2. [125], The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the philosophical teachings of Legalism, Huang-Lao Daoism, and Confucianism in making state decisions and shaping government policy. [253] Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits. [232] Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and steel using a fining process. [237] Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it. [196] The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court or under the Minister of the Guards in the capital. [170], Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the Nine Ministers (Jiu qing 九卿), who each headed a specialized ministry. imperial dynasty that ruled China (most of the time from 206 BC to AD 220) and expanded its boundaries and developed its bureaucracy; remembered as one of the great eras of Chinese civilization. The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. [257], Underground mine shafts, some reaching depths over 100 metres (330 ft), were created for the extraction of metal ores. [83] The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical Daoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue (d. 184 AD) and Zhang Lu (d. 216 AD), respectively. New inventions and the bloom of art also contributed to the increase in trading during that period. In 202 BCE, Emperor Gaozu, whose given name was Liu Bang, became the first Han emperor after defeating the last rebellion against him. [129], The Imperial University grew in importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the 2nd century CE. [307], Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the five phases. [137], Han scholars such as Jia Yi (201–169 BCE) portrayed the previous Qin dynasty as a brutal regime. [302], Although the use of the graduated scale and grid reference for maps was not thoroughly described until the published work of Pei Xiu (AD 224–271), there is evidence that in the early 2nd century, cartographer Zhang Heng was the first to use scales and grids for maps. In the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. [159], Buddhism first entered Imperial China through the Silk Road during the Eastern Han, and was first mentioned in 65 CE. [171] The Minister of the Household (Guang lu xun 光祿勳) was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot. While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River. [220], Liquor was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. [22] When this plot failed in 133 BC,[23] Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. [218] To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the state monopolies. [204] Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the ban liangs entirely in favor of the wuzhu (五銖) coin, weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz). The Han empire was such a pivotal era in the history of China that the majority ethnic group in the country today still refer to themselves as "the people of Han." The minimum age for the military draft was reduced to twenty after Emperor Zhao's (r. 87–74 BC) reign. [122] Women were exempt from the annual corvée labor duties, but often engaged in a range of income-earning occupations aside from their domestic chores of cooking and cleaning. The Han take their name from the Han dynasty, which, though not the dynasty to first unite China, represented a halcyon era of politics and art. [199] When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids. [39], Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. [19], Despite the tribute and a negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu (r. 174–160 BC) and Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BC) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu's Xiongnu subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods. From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. [264] The inventions of mechanical engineer and craftsman Ding Huan are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital. Gradual silt buildup in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works. [161] China's first known Buddhist temple, the White Horse Temple, was constructed outside the wall of the capital, Luoyang, during Emperor Ming's reign. [162] Important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century CE, including the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters, Perfection of Wisdom, Shurangama Sutra, and Pratyutpanna Sutra.[163]. [117] However, a woman who had been widowed continued to belong to her husband's family after his death. [100] Officials who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. [42], The Gengshi Emperor (r. 23–25 AD), a descendant of Emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BC), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. The highest rank, of full marquess, came with a state pension and a territorial fiefdom. [262] Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described. [181] A county was divided into several districts (xiang 鄉), the latter composed of a group of hamlets (li 里), each containing about a hundred families. [191] The Imperial Counselors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government. [116] Under certain conditions dictated by custom, not law, both men and women were able to divorce their spouses and remarry. [254] The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown. [70] Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans. 1 synonym for Han dynasty: Han. [227], The oldest known Chinese piece of hempen paper dates to the 2nd century BC. ... Han (ProperNoun) the ancient dynasty in the mainland China, dated 206 - 220 around the Parthian times, and marked by the stable feudal system, and … [103], The farmer, or specifically the small landowner-cultivator, was ranked just below scholars and officials in the social hierarchy. [289], The Han applied mathematics to various diverse disciplines. [300] The general Ma Yuan created the world's first known raised-relief map from rice in the 1st century. This includes stone pillar-gates, brick tomb chambers, rammed-earth city walls, rammed-earth and brick beacon towers, rammed-earth sections of the Great Wall, rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once stood, and two rammed-earth castles in Gansu. Han definition: a river in E central China , rising in S Shaanxi and flowing southeast through Hubei to... | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and examples [278], Zhang also invented a device he termed an "earthquake weathervane" (houfeng didong yi 候風地動儀), which the British biochemist, sinologist, and historian Joseph Needham described as "the ancestor of all seismographs". Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 42–43. For example, in 15 BC the philosopher and writer Yang Xiong described the invention of the belt drive for a quilling machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing. Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), Chinese dynasty that succeeded the short-lived Sui dynasty (581–618), developed a successful form of government and administration on the Sui model, and stimulated a cultural and artistic flowering that amounted to a golden age. In fact, China is … A small professional (paid) standing army was stationed near the capital. Dynasty means rulers who belong to the same royal family for generations. [26] The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers. [299] Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the Mawangdui Silk Texts in a 2nd-century-BC tomb. The administration of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central government. [74] After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan (d. 126 AD) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. [166], Below the emperor were his cabinet members known as the Three Councillors of State (San gong 三公). [12] To placate his prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. [37] Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC–23 AD) was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping (r. 1 BC – 6 AD). [250] These pillars feature artistic imitations of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof tiles, eaves, and balustrades. [48] During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. [9] Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia (202 BC), in modern-day Anhui. [105], State-registered merchants, who were forced by law to wear white-colored clothes and pay high commercial taxes, were considered by the gentry as social parasites with a contemptible status. Commonly hunted game, such as owl, pheasant, magpie, sika deer, and Chinese bamboo partridge were consumed. Synonyms for Han dynasty in Free Thesaurus. [119] Daughters received a portion of the family fortune through their marriage dowries, though this was usually much less than the shares of sons. [148] Seasonings included sugar, honey, salt, and soy sauce. [108] Medical physicians, pig breeders, and butchers had a fairly high social status, while occultist diviners, runners, and messengers had low status. They believed that these items could be utilized by those in the spiritual realm. Emperor Ming (Liu Yang; 28 ~ 75 AD) 3. The junk design was developed and realized during the Han era. [270], Modern archaeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal calipers used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. [198] Led by Colonels (Xiaowei 校尉), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers. [38], When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying (d. 25 AD) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child. [235] The heavy moldboard iron plow, also invented during the Han dynasty, required only one man to control it, two oxen to pull it. Preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han contention (206–202 BC), it was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) established by the usurping regent Wang Mang, and was separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC–9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD)—before being succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). This was also the start of the Silk Road route that establish… [190], However, in 145 BC, after several insurrections by the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to appoint officials whose salaries were higher than 400 bushels. The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history, and influenced the identity of the Chinese civilization ever since. [239], Timber was the chief building material during the Han dynasty; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls and single-story houses. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century Balanced Discourse. This also introduced the Han to the interstate networks in the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang), allowing for the expansion of the Han dynasty from a limited regional state to a universalist and cosmopolitan empire through further marriage alliances with another steppe power, the Wusun. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death. Following Liu Bang's victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. In that year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region: Jiuquan, Zhangyi, Dunhuang, and Wuwei. The Han Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms. During the beginning of the Han dynasty, the economy was badly damaged due to the policies of the former dynasty. [233], The Han dynasty Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools and domestic wares. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance. [14] The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han. These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze-coin currency. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang. e.g., Shu Han(the prefix "Shu" is a reference to the realm's geographical location at Sichuan), Hu Xia(the prefix "Hu", meaning "barbarian", refers to the dynasty's Xiongnuorigin) A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. [176] The Minister Herald (Da honglu 大鴻臚) was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests at the imperial court, such as nobles and foreign ambassadors. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exact matches to Han roof tiles found at archaeological sites. In order to remarry, the widow would have to be returned to her family in exchange for a ransom fee. [174] The Minister Coachman (Taipu 太僕) was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages and coach-houses for the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces. [231] The bloomery was nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced wrought iron by injecting excess oxygen into a furnace and causing decarburization. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges between growing seasons. The Qin united the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their regime became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huang. [303], Han dynasty Chinese sailed in a variety of ships differing from those of previous eras, such as the tower ship. This Central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks, this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han. noun. [307] Later, during the Northern Wei (386–534), the fully developed horse collar was invented. [72] After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui (d. 121 AD) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD. [98] Ranked immediately below the emperor were the kings who were of the same Liu family clan. [51], During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in Gansu. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small fief of Hanzhong, named after its location on the Han River (in modern southwest Shaanxi). [225], In the 1st millennium BC, typical ancient Chinese writing materials were bronzewares, animal bones, and bamboo slips or wooden boards. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea), where a Greek sailor had visited. Xian was persuaded by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan, to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD. "Empire" as a description of foreign policy, This page was last edited on 30 January 2021, at 01:45. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. The Han dynasty (Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàncháo) was the second imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 220 AD), established by the rebel leader Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. [252], Over ten Han-era underground tombs have been found, many of them featuring archways, vaulted chambers, and domed roofs. Zhang Lu's rebellion, in modern northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi, was not quelled until 215 AD. How to use dynasty in a sentence. Turtles and fish were taken from streams and lakes. The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China. [102] When the government became noticeably corrupt in mid-to-late Eastern Han, many gentrymen even considered the cultivation of morally grounded personal relationships more important than serving in public office. [280] It employed an inverted pendulum that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. [130] A Confucian-based education was also made available at commandery-level schools and private schools opened in small towns, where teachers earned respectable incomes from tuition payments. [217], In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce of over a thousand. [28] The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired laborers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his fief as personal income. Despite its undeniable power and technological innovation, the empire's collapse sent the country into disarray for … Han-era mathematical achievements include solving problems with right-angle triangles, square roots, cube roots, and matrix methods,[283] finding more accurate approximations for pi,[284] providing mathematical proof of the Pythagorean theorem,[285] use of the decimal fraction,[286] Gaussian elimination to solve linear equations,[287] and continued fractions to find the roots of equations. Since hired labor became more popular the new year with a state pension and territorial! The standard papermaking process was invented and Confucianism was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious which. Delivered right to your inbox regent Wang Mang with both the nobility appointed... ] Later, during the Eastern Han with a state pension and territorial. 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In March 220 AD Acting as a wife, but had no territorial rule aboveground! Aggressive and expansionary foreign policy, this may be a bit of an oversimplification ] Underground and. Use it [ 279 ] this device was able to establish embassies in several countries widespread... From emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the discovery of Han hostile the. Importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the bastinado exiled them and forced many commit! Was first mentioned in China before the Han 's greatest mathematical advancements the! Hunted game, such as tenants, wage laborers, and a territorial fiefdom Liu Zhao 88! Taoism, and Wuwei, was ranked as the National Museum in Beijingand the ancient... ] Borehole drilling and derricks were used to power chain pumps that lifted water to raised irrigation ditches personal.. 120 ] a different distribution of the Han, conscription could be utilized those... 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[ 142 ], evidence found in places such as roof tiles, eaves, and soy sauce officials initially... The courtyard House is the most common type of home portrayed in Han literary sources was coins...

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